Milton Friedman University

STUDY

Tamás Hackl

FMKIEW
BA in Communication and Media Studies

Budapest
2023

Milton Friedman University
Department of Communication and Cultural Studies

Crisis communication in social media

Consultant Teacher:
Dr. Péter Gerencsér Prepared by:
Tamás Hackl
FMKIEW
BA Communication and Media Studies

Budapest
2023
Table of contents

1. Introduction 3
   1.1 Introduction 3
   1.2. Research questions, methodology 5
   1.3 Structure of the thesis 6
   The concept of crisis communication and how we got here… 7
   2.1 Definition of basic concepts 7
   2.2 Brief overview: milestones in communication 8
   2.3 History and definition of communication, origins of crisis management 9
   2.4 Definition of crisis 11
   2.5 Definition of crisis communication 12
   2.6 Research on crisis communication 13
   2.7 Crisis models, crisis management and crisis communication methods and theories 14
   2.8 Relevant domestic research 21
   2.9 International trends and recent research 24
2. Analysis of police crisis communication practices 26
   3.1 Example of crisis communication 26
3. Presentation of my research 28
   4.1. My research design 28
   4.2. Presentation of in-depth interviews 29
   4.3 Evaluation of the entries 32
4. Conclusions, suggestions, limitations 52
   5.1. Summary 52
   5.2. Proposals 54
   5.3 Limitations of the research 56
   Bibliography 57
   Annexes 1

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my thesis supervisor, Dr. Peter Gerencsér, who helped me with his expertise and advice. Thank you for your continued attention and patience!
Thank you for your professional insight into police communication practices to Kristóf Gál, Police Lieutenant Colonel, Spokesperson of the National Police Headquarters and Ingrid Nothoff, Police Major, Communications Officer of the Budapest Police Headquarters.
I am also grateful to my mother, Police Lieutenant Colonel Bettina Kutsera-Juhász, who patiently supported me – not only during my university years – and helped me a lot in the preparation of this thesis by sharing her professional experience.
Thank you to my grandparents for always supporting me and helping me with understanding and patience!

I would like to thank the Hungarian police officers for their extraordinary sacrifice, even at the cost of their lives, to protect citizens!

 
1.
1.1.
Social media have significantly changed the way we access information. In the past, information was primarily disseminated through traditional media such as newspapers, television and radio. But social media have further democratised the consumption of information, making it easier for people to access and share information in real time.
This is particularly true in crisis situations, as social media platforms provide organisations with a direct and immediate means of communication with stakeholders.
(In my thesis, I will use the words crisis communication, crisis communication, crisis management and crisis management as synonyms, with one meaning, based on the fact that the words crisis and crisis are also synonyms in dictionaries. ) In times of crisis, social media platforms provide a direct and immediate communication tool for communicating with stakeholders; based on my many years of professional experience as a communications consultant, I can say that they are now an integral part of any crisis communication plan. Organizations can use social media to disseminate accurate and timely information, respond to public concerns and address misunderstandings and crises.
In my thesis, I limit my examination of crisis communication practices on social media to law enforcement agencies.
My original intention in this thesis was to contribute to the literature on crisis communication on social media by analysing the crisis communication practices of the Budapest Police Headquarters (BRFK) on Facebook. Specifically, my study would have examined three cases: the Teréz körút bombing in 2016, the 2019 Mermaid ship disaster, and the 2023 police murder in Újbuda. These three cases had to be reduced to a single case, the last one, both because of the space limitations of the essay and because the posts about the previous two cases are no longer available on the police Facebook pages.
The thesis begins with an overview of the history of communication, followed by a discussion of related theories and relevant literature. I present national and international studies that provide a basis for analysing crisis communication practices. In the third chapter, I analyse the BRFK’s crisis communication practices on Facebook, while in the fourth chapter, I describe my research methodology. In chapter five, I summarize the results, identify limitations and make recommendations for future research.

Law enforcement and law enforcement agencies have recognized the value of social media in crisis management, particularly in disseminating accurate and timely information. Social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook have become the primary channels for law enforcement and other government agencies worldwide to communicate with the public and post updates during crisis situations.
Despite the recognised importance of social media in crisis communication, few studies have examined law enforcement agencies’ crisis communication practices – this is particularly true in Hungary. This lack of knowledge also highlights the fact that law enforcement agencies do not have a sufficient frame of reference, other than internally developed communication guidelines, to be sure that they can effectively manage crisis situations, including through social media.
In my thesis, I therefore examine how and along what guidelines an organization communicates on social media platforms in a crisis situation. Based on the social media practices of the law enforcement agency and the in-depth interviews I will describe later, it can be said that it communicates mostly on Facebook in crisis situations, and thus I will focus explicitly on this one platform in this thesis.
I will argue that the police have effectively applied the main guidelines of SCCT (Situational Crisis Communication Theory) and FT (Framing Theory) during their last crisis situation. Their definitions will be presented in more detail in the next chapter.
The choice to focus on the Budapest Police Headquarters is justified for several reasons. Firstly, it is the organisation responsible for maintaining public order in our capital city, and therefore its direction may be of greater public interest than usual. Secondly, its crisis communication practice may be relevant and valuable for other law enforcement agencies and other organisations in Hungary and beyond. Thirdly, the Budapest Police Headquarters often has specific communication practices (due to the unpredictability of events) that can be compared with other examples of crisis communication in the organisation and with different theories to identify best practices and opportunities for communication improvement.
1.2 Research questions, methodology
My original research questions were:

1. Has the BRFK successfully addressed the crisis communication challenges posed by the emergence of social media?
2. Does the Budapest Police effectively protect its own organisational reputation in a crisis situation by using different crisis communication strategies on social media?

Since, for the reasons mentioned above, I am examining a single case study in this thesis, from which I cannot draw representative conclusions, I have narrowed down these questions as follows:

1. Did the Budapest Police Headquarters successfully deal with the crisis communication challenges posed by the emergence of social media during the police murder in Újbuda?
2. Did the Budapest Police Headquarters effectively protect its own organisational reputation in a crisis situation on social media by using different crisis communication strategies during the police murder in Újbuda?

To answer the research questions, I will use a mixed method research design, including a literature review, in-depth interviews with police communication professionals, and an analysis of the specific crisis communication case mentioned above, and whether any aspects of SCCT and FT appear in the communication. This multi-method approach will hopefully provide a comprehensive picture of the crisis communication practices of the Budapest Police Headquarters, allowing for an informed analysis of their effectiveness and shortcomings.
While the results of my research cannot be considered representative, I believe that the case study will provide an in-depth insight into the police’s crisis communication practices in social media from the law enforcement perspective. Although the results are limited, it is hoped that they will provide valuable insights into the topic and contribute to further research.

1.3 Structure of the thesis
I have structured the thesis as follows. After the introduction, in the second chapter I provide an overview of the milestones through which humanity has passed to the point where social media platforms have become the most dominant channel of communication. I will then discuss various crisis communication concepts, theories and relevant literature on social media that are relevant to this thesis. I will then present recent national and international studies related to my topic. This will provide the basis for a subsequent analysis of the crisis communication practices of the Budapest Police Headquarters. In the third chapter I will examine the crisis communication practices of the organisation, analysing its strategies and messages on the Facebook social media platform. In chapter four, I present my research methodology, including the research design and my data collection and analysis methods. I present the results of my research and interpret them in light of the literature review and the specific crisis communication example. Finally, in chapter five I draw conclusions, including a summary of the research findings, identification of limitations and recommendations for future research.
In conclusion, my thesis aims to contribute to the literature on social media crisis communication by examining the social media practices of the Budapest Police Headquarters in crisis situations. By providing insights into the crisis communication practices of this organization, the research will contribute to the development of effective crisis communication strategies for law enforcement agencies and other organizations in Hungary and beyond.

2. The concept of crisis communication and how we got here…

2.1 Definition of basic concepts
Before I start analysing specific examples, I consider it important to provide a satisfactory literature review on the topic of crisis communication; in my thesis, I will proceed in a step-by-step manner from the communication theory literature on crisis communication to the analysis of specific examples, in order to answer my research questions and hopefully provide information that is new and useful to the field of communication and crisis communication. I believe it is important to define the basic concepts used in my thesis and to put the factors under study in a broader context, which I will attempt to do below. I will also define the more basic and more complex concepts and try to introduce the field of crisis communication research and the works that are both popular and relevant. I do all this because I will use the definitions and the literature presented in my subsequent, specific case analyses. I will also briefly discuss the history of communication and the works of the philosophers of old in order to provide some background on the subject and to put my thesis in context, thus making it more readable.

2.2. Brief outlook: milestones in communication
One of the, if not the, most significant milestones in communication in the 21st century has been the rise of social media. Social media platforms have revolutionised the way we communicate and interact with others, offering both opportunities and challenges in the use of communication strategies and tools.

The rise of social media platforms has fundamentally transformed communication channels, providing unparalleled opportunities for individuals and organisations to interact, network and share knowledge. Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives, with more than 4.5 billion users worldwide actively using platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, TikTok and Snapchat.
The advent of social media has led to significant changes in communication channels, offering unparalleled opportunities for individuals and organisations to interact, network and share information. With the advent of social media, people can instantly connect with each other regardless of geographical boundaries and time zones. This has revolutionised the way we communicate and has led to the emergence of new social norms and practices.

2.3 History and definition of communication, origins of crisis management
Communication has been a fundamental part of human existence since ancient times. Modern human communication is recent on a biological evolutionary timeline, but it is still ancient on a human scale. The emergence of anatomically modern humans 200 000 years ago may have been followed by language around 100 000 years later. Some research suggests that modern vocal language dates back as far as 500 000 years. As early as the 4th century BC, Aristotle, one of the most influential philosophers in Western thought, recognised the significant impact of communication on human relationships. In his Rhetoric and Poetics, he emphasised the role of language and storytelling in shaping our view of the world and persuading others. In Poetics, he discussed the elements of drama and storytelling, including plot, character and language, and how these elements can be used to elicit emotional responses. In both works he emphasises the importance of effective communication. In Poetics, he explained that the plot should be structured so that it has a clear beginning, middle and end, and that the events of the plot should be logically linked; and that they should inevitably lead to the conclusion of the play. He believed that effective communication (as well as plot) required an understanding of the audience’s emotions and values, and the use of logic and reason,
Communication can be defined as a process that involves the use of social institutions (e.g. language – often referred to as code in the practice of communication research, and other message carriers), settings (e.g. background, context) and agents (e.g. spokesperson). Social institutions such as language, noise or writing provide a specific pattern that communicators and their ‘interlocutors’ use and understand. According to participatory communication theory, communication cannot be separated from its context or environment, as it is always embedded in the personal and institutional reality of the communicators. Communication therefore always involves agents who generate and interpret messages in a given situation. When thinking about communication, it is useful to understand the concepts of institution, arena and agent.
Cicero, the eminent Roman philosopher and statesman of the first century BC, is known for his influential work on rhetoric and communication, The Speaker, in which he stressed the importance of ethos (character), logos (logical reasoning) and pathos (emotional connection) in effective communication. He argued that the speaker must establish credibility and character, argue logically and appeal to the emotions of the audience in order to persuade them. Cicero believed that effective communication was essential to success in both personal and professional spheres, and his ideas on rhetoric still have a major influence on the field of communication today. His work provides valuable insights into the art of persuasive speech and writing.
The ancient philosophers’ ideas on effective communication are still relevant today, especially in times of crisis when the reputation of a company or institution, or even human lives, may be at stake. Communication is, in my opinion, the cornerstone of our society (which is why it is very important to constantly research and seek to understand its history, milestones and aspects).
This is borne out by the countless times history has shown us how people have perceived, assessed, communicated about and tried to adapt to or prevent threats and risks. Our ancestors’ interpretative processes of hazard and risk outcome prediction have been institutionalised and, at a fundamental level, have changed little even today.

2.4 Definition of crisis
I think it is important to define what is considered a crisis. This makes it easier for me to identify the example I want to analyse. Based on Coombs’ justly famous manual on crisis management (see ibid.), a crisis is defined as an unexpected, non-routine event or series of events that poses a high degree of uncertainty and threat to the organisation’s priorities and objectives. These goals and objectives may include the survival of an organisation, the protection of its reputation and its ability to maintain the trust and loyalty of its stakeholders. Crisis situations can arise from a wide range of events, including natural disasters, accidents, human error, malicious attacks and deliberate misconduct. It is important to note that the perception of a crisis is subjective and may vary depending on the stakeholders involved. Therefore, it is essential that organisations are aware of potential crisis situations and have a crisis management plan in place to help identify, prevent and respond effectively to crisis situations. Coombs also stresses that crisis communication is a fundamental aspect of crisis management, as it can help organisations to protect and maintain their reputation, restore stakeholder trust and loyalty, and recover from crisis.
To summarise, crisis can be defined as an unexpected and non-routine event that poses a significant threat to an organisation’s priority goals and objectives. Crisis communication is an essential aspect of crisis management and it is vital for organisations to have a crisis management plan that includes effective crisis communication strategies. This is particularly important because crises are subject to intense media attention and stakeholder attention with damaged expectations due to their anomalous dimension.
In my thesis, I pay attention to the separation of crises and incidents, as suggested by the Coombs. The definition of ‘crisis/crisis’ should be reserved for serious events that require careful attention from management, as the label ‘crisis/crisis’ in an organisation requires and results in a (re)allocation of time, attention and resources. However, the definition should not be seen as limiting the potential damage to the organisation. Indeed, harm to stakeholders should be assessed as the most significant ‘negative outcome’.

2.5 Definition of crisis communication
Crisis communication is an essential element of modern business and organisational management. In the face of unexpected, non-routine events that threaten the achievement of organisational objectives, crisis communication aims to minimise damage to reputation, goodwill and perception and to meet the expectations of stakeholders. Coombs defines a successful crisis communication approach as the ability to contain potential reputational or integrity damage at an early stage, and as a result, no real crisis develops. Crisis communication can be broadly defined as the gathering, processing and dissemination of information necessary to manage a crisis situation. The practices of crisis communication include gathering information on crisis risks, making decisions on how to deal with potential crises, (re-)training those involved in the crisis management process, and creating and disseminating crisis messages to those outside the crisis team. Post-crisis communication includes analysing crisis management efforts, communicating necessary changes to the public and providing post-crisis communication where necessary.
Crisis communication is a critical element of effective crisis management, particularly in addressing threats to public safety, environmental well-being and organizational survival. This is a priority area for the institutions and effective management of crisis situations is key. Communicators must be able to communicate effectively and appropriately with the public, stakeholders, the press and other actors. Successful crisis communication can have a positive impact on an organisation’s reputation and image, while poorly managed communication can cause significant damage to organisations. It is important for organisations to prepare in advance for potential crisis situations and to develop appropriate communication strategies.
Communication should focus on the right message framing, i.e. setting the right context for messages, managing accusations (or misinformation) and segmenting messages. The correct use of words and concepts is also essential for effective communication. Communication professionals have specific practical skills to guide the flow of dialogue and the use of words, thereby setting the tone and influencing the associative scope of a topic. Successful crisis communication management can be achieved not only in a reactive way, by communicating when a crisis occurs, but also in a proactive way, with pre-planned communication strategies and appropriate communication skills. Therefore, it is crucial that institutions prioritise crisis communication as a key part of their crisis management strategies to ensure that they are prepared to deal effectively with crises.
2.6 Research on crisis communication
Crisis communication research is a relatively young and rapidly expanding field that focuses on the study of communication strategies during crises, with the aim of understanding the dynamics of crisis communication and developing effective communication strategies that can help organisations to manage crises effectively. The field of crisis communication research has developed in response to the need for effective crisis communication in organisations. It focuses on how organisations can communicate with stakeholders in times of crisis, including the effective use of different communication channels and the tailoring of messages to specific audiences.
Several key themes can be used to describe the general nature of crisis communication research. These include the importance of preparedness and planning, the role of media and technology, the need for effective message crafting, and the importance of audience engagement. Preparedness and planning are also critical elements of effective crisis communication:
This includes having a crisis communication plan, identifying potential crisis situations and (further) training staff to respond to crisis situations. Media and technology have also become increasingly important in crisis communication research. With the rise of social media, organisations now need to consider how they communicate with stakeholders on a variety of platforms. Social media can be a powerful tool for crisis communication, but it also presents new challenges, including the need for real-time monitoring and the potential for the rapid spread of fake news and misinformation.
Research shows that the way messages are worded can also have a significant impact on how they are received by stakeholders. This includes factors such as tone of voice, message content and the use of emotional effects. Finally, audience engagement is a critical element of effective crisis communication. Organisations that engage with stakeholders in a crisis are more likely to be successful in crisis management. This includes providing timely and accurate information, actively listening to feedback and responding to stakeholder concerns. Overall, crisis communication research is a fast-growing field that seeks to understand the dynamics of crisis communication and develop effective communication strategies that can help organisations successfully manage crises. The field’s most popular materials cover preparedness and planning, analysing the role of media and technology, describing effective ways to shape messages, and describing audience engagement methods.

2.7 Crisis models, crisis management and crisis communication methods and theories
There are many methods and processes of crisis management. Crisis communication practices, as part of crisis management, are often based on crisis models and crisis management manuals, the most widely used of which is the SCCT (Situational Crisis Communication Theory) crisis management process, named after Timothy Coombs (1), which focuses on the target group of the organisation in crisis. In addition, if we distinguish between the different crisis models based on the phasing of crisis reactions, building on the summary table of János Tanács and Gábor Zemplén (see below), it is worth mentioning the (2. ), which proposes a crisis management process model based on the threefold division of crisis management (crisis management, operational crisis, crisis legitimation) and learning from the responses received during communication; the model based on the fourfold division of crisis development (warning signs, acute phase, chronic/deceleration phase, resolution phase) and the analysis of the evolution of the crisis; the model based on the analysis of the evolution of the crisis (4. ) is based on the four divisions of proactive symmetric crisis management (environment assessment, prevention planning, crisis and crisis management, post-crisis message management) with a thematisation and management focus; and (5) a model that considers crisis management as disaster management with a fivefold division (signal detection, sampling and prevention, damage management, recovery, learning), including an explicit (ex-post) learning phase.
A review of the literature shows that the SCCT, named after Timothy Coombs, is the most prominent crisis communication theory and methodology; this is because it accounts for almost 20% of the material analysing the discipline, a proportion that makes it the most prominent crisis model theory.
For this reason, I will now discuss the SCCT model in more detail:
Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) is a widely recognized and influential framework in the field of crisis communication. Developed by W. Timothy Coombs in the mid-1990s, SCCT provides strategic guidance to organizations on how to communicate effectively in a crisis situation to protect their reputation and maintain stakeholder trust. In this theory, Coombs emphasises the importance of understanding the crisis context, stakeholder perceptions and appropriate communication strategies to minimise potential damage to the organisation.
According to the SCCT, the effectiveness of crisis communication depends on three main components: the type of crisis, the organisation’s past reputation and crisis management strategies. The theory suggests that the alignment between these components is crucial for effective crisis management.
The first component, crisis type, classifies crises into three different types based on the level of responsibility attributed to the organisation: victim (sufferer), accidental and preventable. In a victim crisis, the organisation is seen as the target of an external force or a situation beyond its control, such as natural disasters, terrorism or product manipulation. In an accidental crisis, the organisation is seen by external observers as having some degree of responsibility, but the crisis is unintentional, such as technical failures or accidents at work. In a preventable crisis, the organisation is held fully responsible for negligence, mismanagement or unethical behaviour, such as financial fraud, corruption or product recalls due to quality problems.
The second component, prior reputation, plays a crucial role in shaping the perception of stakeholders during a crisis. A strong, positive reputation can act as a „shield”, making stakeholders more likely to give the organisation credit and forgive missteps. In contrast, a weak or negative reputation can exacerbate a crisis, as stakeholders may perceive the organisation as inherently untrustworthy or incompetent.
The third component, crisis management strategies. Coombs proposes response strategies that organisations can employ to manage both the crisis and the perception of stakeholders. These strategies fall into three main categories: denial, mitigation and reconstruction. Denial strategies involve denying the organisation’s responsibility for the crisis, such as blame-shifting, attacking the accuser, or claiming that it is an isolated incident. Mitigating strategies seek to minimise the perceived severity or impact of the crisis, such as making excuses or expressing concern for the victims. Reconstruction strategies aim to restore the reputation of the organisation by accepting responsibility, apologising, offering compensation or undertaking corrective action.
Coombs’ SCCT emphasises that organisations should tailor their crisis management strategies to the type of crisis and their past reputation. In general, the theory suggests that victim crises require expressions of concern and empathy, accident crises benefit from mitigation-focused strategies, and preventable crises from reconstruction strategies. Organisations with strong positive reputations can often adopt less assertive strategies, while organisations with negative reputations need to adopt more aggressive response tactics.
One of the strengths of the SCCT is that it recognises the dynamic nature of crisis communication and the decision-making that goes with it. This is because organisations may need to adjust their crisis management strategies as the crisis situation evolves, stakeholder perceptions change or new information becomes available. In addition, the theory recognises that crisis communication is not the sole responsibility of the PR department of the organisation, but is a collective effort of the organisation as a whole.

SCCT has been widely applied in a variety of industries, including healthcare, finance and hospitality, and has been used to analyse and evaluate crisis communication in high-profile cases such as the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill and the bankruptcy of General Motors. ,
However, some have also criticised the SCCT, saying it „places too much emphasis on communication” and does not pay enough attention to other factors that affect crisis management, such as leadership, decision-making and organisational culture. Critics argue that a more comprehensive approach is needed to fully understand and manage crises. Ulmer, Seeger and Sellnow, for example, argue that a focus on communication can lead to a narrow understanding of crises and limit the effectiveness of crisis management efforts. They suggest that organisations should focus on crisis resilience, which includes developing the ability to anticipate, prepare for and respond to crises in a holistic way. This includes not only effective communication, but also effective leadership, decision-making and organisational culture. A broader approach to crisis communication is advocated, which takes into account the wider organisational context and recognises the role of leadership, organisational culture and other factors in shaping crisis outcomes. They argue that organisations need to focus on crisis resilience and renewal to create long-term positive outcomes after crises.
Despite these criticisms, the SCCT remains a widely used and influential framework for crisis communication. Its practical guidance and its emphasis on understanding the crisis context, stakeholder perceptions and appropriate response strategies make it a valuable tool for organisations facing crisis. As crises become more frequent and complex in our interconnected world, the need for effective crisis communication strategies is more critical than ever, and the SCCT can provide a useful starting point for developing such strategies.

According to Gergő Dániel Pintér (see later for the reason), SCCT should be linked to Framing Theory (FT). According to Dennis Chong and N. James Druckman, Framing Theory is concerned with how messages are constructed and delivered by communicators to shape people’s perceptions of a crisis event. The theory analyses how the media, organisations and individuals frame information in ways that influence public perceptions of a crisis situation. The aim is to shape people’s understanding of the event and its consequences by emphasising some aspects of the crisis and minimising others. In crisis communication, framing theory takes into account the importance of language, images and other communication elements that shape perceptions of the crisis and how individuals and groups interpret and respond to these messages. Overall, framing theory helps explain how communication can influence how people think about and respond to a crisis.
We should also mention the framing theory of Péter Bajomi-Lázár, who argues that the media are controlled by political and business elites and are used to shape the perceptions of the masses. Bajomi-Lázár’s theory is rooted in Marxism and is influenced by Antonio Gramsci’s theory of hegemony, as well as the work of Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman on propaganda theory. This approach sees the media as a means for the dominant social strata to maintain power and control.
The main difference between the two theories lies in their emphasis. Dennis Chong and N. James Druckman’s theory focuses on how communicators shape perceptions through the construction and delivery of messages, while Péter Bajomi-Lázár’s theory emphasises the role of elites in controlling the media and shaping public opinion. However, Bajomi-Lázár also recognises that the development of technology and diverse media such as digital and social media challenges framing theory, as these platforms provide opportunities for amateurs to offer alternative interpretations of reality independent of political elites.
SCCT and FT theories complement each other effectively in the field of crisis communication. SCCT plays a prominent role in the initial assessment, planning and implementation phases, while FT plays a crucial role in the actual crisis communication phase. SCCT offers a practical and scientific approach that helps to assess the situation and communication choices of the organisation concerned, addressing communication from a strategic and managerial perspective.
The FT recognises interpretative communication frameworks as an essential component of successful crisis management and describes crisis communication as its own unique communication framework. The FT provides a functional rhetorical toolkit for the public presentation of the crisis, with an emphasis not only on direct human communication but also on other non-verbal methods of information exchange. It views crisis communication as a dynamic exchange of information where roles are constantly changing and frames of meaning are constantly competing and reinterpreted by crisis participants.

In addition to the SCCT, following Gergő Dániel Pintér (see hiv.), it is important to mention the following crisis communication models:
The Howell-Miller approach to problem and crisis management is a proactive and systematic approach to identify and address problems before they become crises. It involves analysing potential crises and developing strategies to prevent them, as well as preparing responses in case a crisis does occur. This approach emphasises the importance of early identification and management of problems before they become full-blown crises that could damage the reputation and performance of the organisation.
Image Restoration Theory, developed by William Benoit, focuses on strategies for restoring damaged reputations following a crisis. This theory emphasises the importance of acknowledging mistakes and taking responsibility for the crisis, as well as apologising and making amends to the parties involved. The theory also emphasises the need to use effective communication strategies to restore the organisation’s image, including addressing stakeholders’ concerns and providing clear and transparent information about the crisis.
The Ulmer-Sellnow apology theory focuses specifically on corporate apologies and provides a framework for understanding how and when to apologise effectively in a crisis situation. This theory emphasises the importance of sincere and credible apologies, taking full responsibility for the crisis and making amends to those affected. The theory also emphasises the need to use appropriate communication channels and strategies to apologise, and highlights the importance of timing and context in the effectiveness of apologies. Ultimately, the Ulmer-Sellnow theory of apology provides a useful tool for organisations seeking to navigate crisis situations while minimising damage to their reputation and stakeholder relationships.

2.8 Relevant domestic research
There is not much literature, research or other textual resources available on the internet on the crisis communication practices of the Hungarian police, especially the BRFK. The Hungarian sources worth mentioning are listed below, followed by a discussion of the more significant works in the international literature.
In Hungary, Dr. Dániel Gergő Pintér Dániel has been outstanding on the subject. In his doctoral dissertation in 2018, he investigated the interfaces, limitations and development possibilities of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory and the Communication Framing Theory by analysing the media coverage of the police press conference on the 2016 Budapest bombing. He examined the effectiveness of police crisis communication in relation to the 2016 incident in terms of the SCCT and FT models. Although his study does not focus on social media, I think it is important to summarise his main findings, providing a kind of brief summary of the police communication practices he studied. The study suggests that police communication strategies were inadequate in managing the crisis and preventing the spread of false narratives and conspiracy theories about the incident.
The author suggests that a controlling crisis communication framework could have been more effective in crisis management. The author suggests the use of a temporary communication tool as one of the most useful tools of a controlling crisis communication framework. The interim communication should have indicated that the investigation is ongoing, that the police are professionally and actively managing the situation and that full information about what is happening will be provided soon. The primary objective should have been to restore a sense of security and public calm and to position the organisation as a responsible, interactive, primary source of information through the media and social media.
The author believes that the Hungarian police should have been more proactive in crisis communication following the bombing. They should have provided timely and accurate information to the public through a designated crisis spokesperson and multiple communication channels. They should also have been sensitive to secondary realities and perceptions of the recipient (cf. Participatory Communication Theory – 2.3) and taken into account the perceptions of the affected and the public, which is a fundamental planning and analytical aspect of crisis communication.
The author stresses the importance of aligning the perceptions of stakeholders with the organisation’s understanding of reality and that the police should have engaged meaningfully with the crisis audience’s perceptions. The text also argues that crisis communication must be a conscious, considered choice, even if the critical field is not wide enough or the power of secondary interpretations of reality not great enough to influence significant masses.
The author also argued that it is not enough to design mitigation measures and communication according to primary realities, but that the effects of the online world and the secondary interpretations of reality by those affected should be a decisive factor in the development of a crisis management strategy; even if they are in fact false speculations. The author of the text does not argue that official bodies should always act in accordance with the public’s interpretation of the crisis, nor that crisis communication is a more important factor in averting dangerous situations than the correct use of security or social psychology tools. However, the study highlights that the perception of the event by the target audience is the basis and prerequisite for the further messages, interpretive frameworks and crisis solutions that a brand can formulate.
In summary, the author suggests that the Hungarian police could have handled the 2016 Budapest bombing crisis more effectively if they had adopted a controlling crisis communication framework and a crisis management approach that was sensitive to secondary realities. The text highlights the importance of timely and professional communication, openness and willingness to engage with stakeholders, and avoiding false narratives that exacerbate the crisis.

I should also mention the Crisis Maps of the Hungarian Public Relations Association, published between 2016 and 2019. It is telling (and reassuring) that the police appear in the 2017 crisis map as a fair authority to stop an ethical hacker, and do not appear at all in the 2019 one. In the 2016 crisis map, the police appear both as a judicial authority apprehending wrongdoers and in connection with one of the most serious crises of recent years, the Teréz körút bombing. I will briefly discuss the latter here. , ,
The Teréz körút bombing was a significant event in Hungary, as it occurred amid heightened concerns about the migrant crisis. There were many different opinion and interest groups linked to the migrant crisis, and the bombing took place just a few weeks before the national referendum on the issue. One of the main questions in the referendum was whether Hungary should allow non-Hungarian citizens to settle in the country, under the direction of the European Union.
The bombing raised questions of public security and could have had a significant impact on the outcome of the referendum, as it came at a time of heightened anti-immigrant sentiment in Hungary. It was feared that the incident would heighten public fears and influence the vote. The fact that the suspect was initially believed by many to be an immigrant also added to the political significance of the incident, as it highlighted the concerns about immigration that drove the referendum debate.
The case was investigated by the Counter Terrorism Centre (TEK) and the National Police Headquarters. In the end, it emerged that the suspect had acted alone and there was no evidence to link the bombing to a wider terrorist or extremist network. The case has highlighted the challenge of addressing the interlinkages between terrorism and migration in the public discourse and the need for effective crisis communication strategies in such situations.
The Teréz körút case was examined in Gergő Dániel Pintér’s doctoral dissertation, which identified areas where police crisis communication practices could be further improved. I will not discuss the dissertation at length, as it is not entirely on topic: although the author discussed the police’s social media practices in relation to the case within the scope and analytical framework of the dissertation, he did not provide a precise answer to my research questions.
In the 2018 crisis map, the BRFK case was presented as an incident rather than a major crisis. The Liget Budapest project involved the construction of a museum quarter in the public park in the Városliget, which provoked resistance from a group of park conservationists who wanted to „protect” the park. The clashes and protests have been going on since 2016, with the incident in question taking place in 2018, when the park defenders protested against the reopening of the tree planting. City Park security guards broke up the protest and one protester was injured. Despite the video footage, the scandal did not escalate and the news died down in 1-2 days. The City Park Ltd issued a statement within 6-8 hours of the news, but did not accept responsibility for the incident, citing the law allowing the use of proportional force. The statement was arrogant in tone and did not address the documented brutality of the security guards. The pro-government media did not report on the incident. In my opinion, this is not a crisis, it is an identifiable incident.
2.9 International trends, recent research
In the international literature, several recent studies have looked at the role of social media in crisis communication by organisations, including the police.
For example, the recent edition of the Coombs’ book Crisis Communication mentions a study by Fowler (ibid.), which focused on real-time police communications on Twitter during an ongoing shooting incident and highlighted the importance of ongoing communication to establish credibility and fill information gaps. And in 2019, Le and colleagues examined (see hiv.) the concept of strategic listening and developed practical guidance for organisations on some forms of strategic listening before implementing crisis management strategies that seek to restore reputations. While more research is needed to determine when and how organisations should listen, it is generally recommended that they should be ‘present’ throughout crises to prevent unreliable sources from becoming the primary sources of information.
Also noteworthy is a short study by Dekker and colleagues (see ibid.), which examined the obstacles that police forces face when using social media to communicate with citizens. The study analysed the social media policies of police forces in two advanced social media user countries, the UK and the Netherlands. Their aim was to identify strategies to overcome barriers. The barriers identified include both structural and cultural barriers, such as limited resources, a lack of alignment between police organisational culture and social media culture, and a lack of trust among citizens.
To overcome these barriers, the police forces surveyed use a combination of exploitation and exploration strategies. Exploitation strategies are used to overcome structural barriers, involving standardisation, regulation and the sharing of responsibilities. Exploration strategies are used to address cultural barriers and allow for diversity and experimentation within the police organisation in adapting to the changing context of social media. This combination of approaches to innovation is at odds with the expectations of staged models of innovation, which see exploitation as the final stage.
Research has also shown that social media policies largely focus on structural and cultural barriers on the police side, with limited attention to barriers on the citizen side. The policies use guidelines and procedures to address account, account security, and critical incidents or errors, while allowing room for individual discretion in content creation and platform choice. The policies encourage adaptability, diversity, and experimentation within the boundaries of police identity and image.
The study concludes that even at an advanced stage of innovation adoption, an exploration strategy can have a better impact in overcoming barriers to social media adoption than an exploitation strategy alone. The persistence of the beta approach as a design principle in software development can provide valuable lessons on how to address barriers to social media adoption in other public organisations. Examining police practices is an exceptional case study, as their authoritarian position contrasts with the horizontally networked structure and informality of social media.
The study has certain limitations, such as the analysis of policies that exist only on paper and the focus on only two cases in the Western European context.

3. Examination of police crisis communication practices

3.1 Example of crisis communication
As I mentioned at the beginning of my thesis, I would have examined the organisation’s crisis communication practices and strategies in social media by analysing three real crisis communication situations, but only one of them is possible to find any source on the internet. Therefore, in addition to the examples of crisis communication briefly mentioned above, I will analyse the police murder in Újbuda (Lecke Street) and the BRFK’s communication about it. In this context, I will examine the relevant posts on the BRFK Facebook page between 13 January and 3 February.
On the night of 12 January 2023, a resident of a block of flats in Lecke Street in the 11th district of Budapest tried to break into his neighbour’s flat, which led to police action. Upon their arrival, the perpetrator, Sz. Szilárd, attacked the police, stabbing three policemen, including police sergeant major Péter Baumann, who was stabbed in the heart. Péter later died in hospital. It was the first police murder in Hungary since 2016. The perpetrator was arrested and detained in the trauma ward of a hospital in Budapest and transferred to the Judicial Observation and Treatment Institute.
Péter Baumann was declared a posthumous heroic death by the Hungarian Minister of the Interior, Police Officer Sándor Pintér, and was laid to rest with police and military honours on 26 January 2023. Péter was known as a smiling policeman who loved his family and his work, and who received numerous municipal awards for his effective work for the safety of the community.
The police eventually deployed 42 cars to the scene and issued a statement saying they had taken into custody the perpetrator, who had attacked the officers in the stairwell. Despite being warned and repeatedly told to turn around, the offender tried to flee and was shot in the leg after firing a warning shot. Witnesses said the offender appeared disturbed and banged on doors all night, claiming he needed to save his upstairs neighbour. The perpetrator had a history of aggressive behaviour, drug use and previous convictions for violent offences.

The case has, in my opinion, put several issues on the public agenda, such as:

1. how did the offender, who was known to be aggressive and had a criminal record, regain access to his weapon after the police took it away?
2. Did the police follow proper protocols and procedures when attempting to arrest the perpetrator? Were there any mistakes or errors in the arrest that may have contributed to the tragedy?
3. What is being done to prevent similar incidents in the future, both to improve officer safety and to reduce violence?
4. What support are you providing to the families and colleagues of police officers injured or killed in the attack? Do they receive any compensation or assistance?

The police have responded to these questions through their social media pages and through the media.

4. Presentation of my research
   In this chapter, I will present my research methodology, including my research design and my data collection and analysis methods. I will present the results of my research and interpret them in the light of the literature review and concrete examples of crisis communication.
   4.1. My research design
   The aim of my research is to analyse the crisis communication of the Budapest Police Headquarters on social media (Facebook) during a crisis situation. In this study, I will try to link the messages and methods used during this crisis with Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT) and Framing Theory (FT) in order to measure its effectiveness. The research also includes in-depth interviews with Police Major Ingrid Nothoff, Communications Officer of the Budapest Police Headquarters, and Lieutenant Colonel Kristóf Gál, Spokesperson of the National Police Headquarters, to get their views and opinions on the police’s crisis communication efforts and results.
   My literature review, as part of my research design, hopefully provided background on basic concepts and milestones in communication, the origins of crisis management, definitions of crisis and crisis communication, research on crisis communication, and crisis models and management, and theories of communication. The review also covered relevant national and international research and recent trends.
   The research methodology will consist of a content analysis of social media posts of the Budapest Police Headquarters during the selected crisis situation. This will be followed by a qualitative analysis of the messages and methods used, as well as an examination of the effectiveness of crisis management. Interviews with experts in the field will provide further insights into the police crisis communication efforts and their results.
   The expected outcome of the research is to better understand the effectiveness of the Budapest Police Headquarters’ crisis communication efforts in social media in crisis situations. …
   4.2. Presentation of in-depth interviews
   My first in-depth interview was conducted with Kristóf Gál, Police Lieutenant Colonel, Spokesperson of the National Police Headquarters. He told me the following about the crisis communication practices of the police:
   During the interview, he mentioned, among others, serious crisis communication cases such as the Battle of Röszke (2015), the Teréz körút bombing (2016), the Mermaid shipwreck (2019), the Covid epidemic (2019-2020), and the Fehérvári út police murder (2023).
   The police crisis communication strategy is based on a command and control (hierarchical) system within the organisation. To ensure effective crisis communication, clear protocols and procedures have been developed for communicating with internal and external stakeholders, such as the media and the public. Simulations and training sessions are conducted to develop the police’s crisis communication skills, and there is a strong emphasis on building and maintaining relationships with the media and other external stakeholders.
   The advantages and disadvantages of using social media in crisis communication vary depending on the case, with a communication strategy based on the principles of honesty and transparency, which in some cases can protect the reputation of the police. It is important to involve senior management in crisis communication to ensure credibility, and the police also use internal evaluation to measure the success of crisis communication strategies in terms of reputation management.
   To avoid common mistakes in crisis communication, the police ensure that information is thoroughly checked and coordinated with the various organisations involved. The police will assign responsibility for each channel to a different person or team, who will work closely together to ensure that crisis communication messages are consistent.
   The police focus on maintaining trust and reputation in crisis communications. To this end, the communication strategy places great emphasis on open, honest and transparent communication. Police representatives are frequently interviewed in the media, share detailed information with the public and regularly update the public on the crisis management process and its results.
   Building relationships with communities and engaging with stakeholders is key for the police in crisis communication. The police will seek to involve local communities in crisis management and listen to their concerns and needs. At the same time, the police work closely with various partner organisations such as the National Ambulance Service, the disaster management, municipalities and NGOs to work together to resolve a crisis.
   The police also pay great attention to internal communication in their crisis communication activities. In order to improve communication within the institution, it ensures that all designated persons in charge clearly understand and follow the crisis management strategy and their respective responsibilities. The police will seek to avoid rumours and misunderstandings and to promote efficient and coherent operations during a crisis situation.
   Overall, the police crisis communication strategy is designed to avoid common mistakes made by others and to manage crisis situations effectively. In order to achieve this, the police will ensure that information is verified, coordination with relevant organisations, communication is consolidated and communities are engaged, and internal communication is improved and trust is regained.

My second in-depth interview was with Major Ingrid Nothoff, Communications Officer at the Budapest Police Headquarters. In summary, I learned the following from her about the BRFK’s crisis communication practices:
The main task of the Budapest Police Headquarters’ Communication Department is to communicate in a credible and factual way to the public. The department oversees the tasks of the communication staff and uses a variety of methods to ensure that the public is informed about the work of the police as quickly and accurately as possible. One such method is the BRFK’s information portal on Facebook, which has also become the primary source of information for the media in recent years.
The main areas of police communication include targeting information, cultivating and developing the reputation and image of the police, cultivating and developing relations with the press, continuous communication training for managers, editing and publishing information and image-building publications, and continuous media analysis. In communicating with the press, great emphasis is placed on compliance with the law, focusing on the facts and avoiding independent commentary other than that of the police.
The structure of the Communications Department of the Budapest Police Headquarters consists of the Head of Department, Deputy Head of Department, spokespersons, press officers, secretaries and technicians. The Head of Unit is responsible for, among other things, signing files and enquiries received by the unit, supervising and reporting on the activities of staff, allocating workloads, training and developing staff, and preparing annual and periodic reports.
In managing crisis communication, the organisation is continuously improving its practices and strategies. In the event of a crisis, designated spokespersons act as the main contact for the media and the public and receive regular training. The provision of timely, accurate and transparent information is a key priority in crisis communication.
Their crisis communication plan includes the principles, communication channels, members of the crisis team, spokespersons and the way to communicate with stakeholders. The plan will also include how to identify the crisis situation and the steps to be taken to manage it.
In crisis communication, it is important to consolidate messages and target audiences. Messages should be clear, concise and easy to understand so that stakeholders are clear about the organisation’s position and the steps to be taken to deal with the crisis.
To increase the effectiveness of crisis communication, media and social media reactions are constantly monitored to detect and correct any negative feedback in time. Internal communication is also important to keep staff up to date on all information and actions related to the crisis situation.
In summary, in managing crisis communication, the police will strive to be proactive and flexible in order to deal with crisis situations effectively and successfully. Continuous improvement, training, the development of crisis plans and the standardisation of messages all contribute to the success of crisis communication.

4.3 Evaluation of entries
Below I will list the related posts that appeared on the BRFK Facebook page between 12 January 2023 and 3 February 2023.
4.3.1. First post: after and based on the announcement published on the police website at 01:55 on 13 January.
Text of the post:
„THREE POLICEMEN STABBED IN ÚJBUDA – ONE OF THEM DIED 🖤
The knife-wielding attacker was shot at by police officers and then apprehended.
On 12 January 2023, at 22:11 pm, the Budapest Police Headquarters received a report that a man had broken down the door of a neighbouring apartment in a Lecke Street apartment building in the 11th district of Budapest, and was trying to enter the apartment.
The police officers, who arrived in reinforced numbers, took the man into custody and the man then attacked the uniformed officers. The assailant stabbed three officers with a knife and fled into the street, where he was shot in the leg by one of the officers after a warning shot and was apprehended.
The three injured officers and the assailant, who had been shot in the leg, were taken to hospital by the National Ambulance Service.
One of the policemen, a district officer of the District XI Police Station, suffered such serious injuries that he died in hospital.”
Photo.

Analysis:
The language used in the post is clear and concise, and the police showed a sense of urgency by breaking the news as soon as possible after the incident occurred. The use of the black heart emoji in the post also conveys a sense of sadness and grief.
In terms of situational crisis communication theory (SCCT), the police appear to be taking a proactive approach by sharing information with the public as soon as possible. In doing so, they demonstrate a commitment to transparency and honesty in their communications, which is consistent with the SCCT’s emphasis on building and maintaining trust with stakeholders.
It is worth noting that the police have implicitly framed the crisis by emphasising the heroism of the police officers involved and the swift action taken to apprehend the attacker. This framing may help to reinforce the image of the Budapest police as a competent and effective law enforcement agency.

4.3.2 Second entry: the revelation of the identity of the Heroic Dead, at 12:10 pm on 13 January.
Post text:
„We are deeply disturbed, not only we police officers in Budapest, but the police force of the whole country. This morning at dawn we lost a colleague, a partner, a friend. Peter Baumann was only 29 years old. The pain, the shock is indescribable.
Peti was known as a smiling policeman, who knew no ill-temper, who loved his family dearly, who lived his profession. He started his police studies in 2012 at the Miskolc Police College, and on July 1, 2013 he joined the BRFK District XI Police Station as a probationary officer. In December 2018, he was promoted to the rank of patrol leader, and six months later to the rank of patrol commander. After that, he worked as a district officer. He loved what he did, and was recognised by his superiors. He received an exceptional rating in his performance appraisal, a testament to his professional dedication.
He received seven Municipal Awards for his effective work in community safety during his service. He was truly absorbed in his profession, his life was the police, the Company filled his every moment, he had practically no hobbies. A year ago, love found him, his partner Niki is also a professional staff member in a partner service. His family, especially his mother, knew him as a man who loved him dearly, and he is mourned by his 32-year-old brother István. Peti would have turned 30 in February.
Peti left behind not only his colleagues but also his friends at the District XI Police Station.
The sirens in all the buildings of the Budapest Police Headquarters will sound at 13:00, as the Budapest police bid farewell to Peti. His comrades and commanders will commemorate the heroic death of the policeman with a candle-lighting ceremony at the District XI Police Headquarters at 17.00 today.”
Photo.
Analysis:
Post 2 on the Budapest Police Facebook page pays tribute to the officer who lost his life in the incident. The post starts with a statement that the police express their deep sorrow for the loss of their colleague Péter Baumann. The post goes on to give a detailed and personal account of the life, education and professional achievements of the policeman. The post also shares information about the candle-lighting ceremony that will be held in his memory.
The language used in the post is emotional and heartfelt, and reflects the loss and grief felt by the police community. The post highlights the officer’s dedication to his profession and his recognised achievements, as well as his personal qualities such as his kindness and love for his family. Including specific details about the officer’s life and career helps to humanise him and make the tragedy more relatable.
By sharing detailed information about the deceased police officer, the police demonstrate a commitment to transparency and openness that can help build trust and credibility with the public (SCCT). From the SCCT perspective, this post represents a follow-up communication that seeks to provide additional information and context to the initial post about the assault. The police attempt to connect with the victims on an emotional level by sharing personal details about the victim and their contribution to the community. In doing so, they humanise the crisis and show empathy for those affected by the tragedy.
In addition, the use of the term „heroic death” is a framing technique that can help to reinforce the image of Peter Baumann as a brave and selfless police officer who sacrificed his life in the line of duty. This framing is consistent with the values and brand identity of the Budapest Police as a professional and dedicated law enforcement agency. It also helps to position the police as a trusted source of information, as they can provide personal details about the victim and their professional achievements. The post highlights the dedication and professionalism of the deceased officer and pays tribute to his heroic sacrifice. It positions the police as an organization that values its employees, is committed to public safety, and is willing to make sacrifices to uphold those values. This framing can help to strengthen the reputation and brand identity of the police, which is consistent with the FT’s ambition to frame crisis events in a way that is consistent with the values and goals of the organisation.

4.3.3 Third post: Acknowledgement to supporters on 13 January at 20:33.
Post text:
„THANK YOU for loving us so much! THANK YOU for supporting us so much! THANK YOU for your words of comfort!
THIS HAS MEANT SO MUCH TO OUR PEOPLE! TO ALL THE STAFF!
Today at 13:00 all the colleagues of the Budapest Police Headquarters stood outside at all the police stations and police objects, and in honour of Peti, the sirens were sounding all over Budapest…
The Chief of Police of Budapest visited both of our injured officers today! Under the circumstances, THEY ARE WELL!
We will show you tomorrow!”
Photo.

Analysis:
Post 3 on the Facebook page of the Budapest Police Headquarters shows a video of uniformed police officers paying their respects at various locations, followed by police leaders laying flowers at the memorial of the deceased policeman, Péter Baumann, at the Újbuda police station. The post thanks the public for their support and provides updates on the injured police officers.
The language used in the post is appreciative and emotional, reflecting the sense of gratitude and camaraderie felt by the police community. A video of uniformed police officers paying their respects at various locations emphasises the sense of unity and solidarity among police officers, while police leaders lay flowers at the memorial, underlining the sense of loss and grief felt by the police community.
By sharing the video of police officers paying their respects, as well as updates on the injured officers, the police are demonstrating their commitment to transparency and honesty in their communications. The post also appears to be an attempt to frame the crisis in a way that fits with the police brand and values, as it emphasises the sense of unity and solidarity among police officers and the gratitude the police community feels for the support it receives from the public.
From the SCCT’s perspective, this post reinforces the message that the police value their relationship with stakeholders and appreciate their support. By expressing their gratitude in a public forum, the police also potentially strengthen their relationship with stakeholders as this can help build trust and positive associations.
In terms of framing, this post does not explicitly frame the crisis in a particular way, but it could be argued that emphasising the support and comfort provided by stakeholders puts the crisis in a more positive light. This framing is consistent with the Budapest Police Department’s values of community and teamwork as it acknowledges and celebrates community support.

4.3.4 Fourth post: video of two police leaders visiting injured colleagues, published on 14 January at 9:00 am
Post text:
„Lt. Col. László Dobos, Rtd. is recovering at home with his wife and one and a half year old son. László Kállai, R.C.O., is still in hospital, but hopes to return home this morning to recuperate with his family.
They have a long recovery process ahead of them, we WELCOME THEM BACK! „
Photo: video

Analysis:
Post 4 on the Budapest Police Facebook page shows a video of two police chiefs visiting their injured colleagues. In the post, they provide information about the injured officers and express the hope of the police that they will recover soon.
The language used in the post is supportive and optimistic, reflecting the officers’ concern for the welfare of their colleagues and their desire to return to duty as soon as possible. The video of the police chiefs visiting their injured colleagues emphasises the sense of community and support within the police force, while the updates on the condition of the officers help to build trust and credibility with the public.
The post reinforces the positive image of the Budapest Police as a supportive and caring organisation. By visiting their colleagues and expressing their support for their recovery, the police are framing the crisis in a way that highlights their compassion and concern for their colleagues. This framing is in line with the Budapest Police Department’s values of community, teamwork and commitment to colleagues.

4.3.5 Fifth post: thanking partners for their support on 16 January at 15:22
Post text:
„Three days have passed since we had to acknowledge, despite all the protests of our souls, that we had to let go of the hand of a beloved colleague, posthumous police lieutenant Péter Baumann, and in these three days, that endless cold silence was broken only and exclusively by your support and compassionate words. We used to write that we policemen are a family, and in these indescribably difficult moments you were with us, you were with our grieving blue family. In these three days, there was not a moment when we Budapest police officers shared the grief ourselves; police officers from all corners of the country and from across the border, the defence, firefighters, paramedics, colleagues from the penitentiary, the special services, the special rescue units, the vigilantes, the public area supervisors, the staff of the National Tax and Customs Administration and all the bodies who are our partners, who are our supporters, were all with us! It meant an indescribable amount to our colleagues. Thank you! Thank you for the messages from former police leaders and our former colleagues, because a blue heart is always a blue heart.
Thank you for the words of sympathy from former national police chiefs, the Director General of the National Defence Service, the Head of the Budapest Disaster Management Directorate, the Head of the Budapest Civil Guard Association, the Director General of the National Ambulance Service, the Director General of the National Directorate General of Alien Police, the Prosecutor General on behalf of the entire Prosecution, the Communications Department of the Budapest Chief Prosecutor’s Office, the President of the Hungarian Bar Association and the President of the Budapest Bar Association. Thank you to the Information Portal of the Police Headquarters of Békés County, the police officers of Békés County, for contacting us so many times and being with us in our greatest need.
Thank you to the thousands of civilians who sent their condolences, who felt what it means for our police officers to serve and protect every day. What it meant to posthumous police lieutenant Peter Baumann, who, true to his oath, did and lived like this. Until the end.
Thank you, that’s all we can say!”
Photo.

Analysis:
In post 5 on its Facebook page, the Budapest Police Headquarters thanks the public and various organisations for their support and condolences following the death of Police Lieutenant Péter Baumann.
The language used in the post is emotional and appreciative, reflecting the sense of gratitude and camaraderie felt by the police officers. The post emphasises the sense of unity and solidarity between the different organisations and the police, who thank all those who stood by them during their time of grief.
For the SCCT, this post serves to maintain and strengthen positive relations between the Budapest Police and its partners and supporters. The post acknowledges the impact of the crisis on the wider policing community and expresses gratitude for the support received. This will help build and maintain trust and positive relationships between the police and stakeholders.
In terms of framing, the post frames the crisis as a shared experience that brought the police together with their partners and supporters. By emphasizing the support and compassion provided by stakeholders, the police frame the crisis in a way that highlights their commitment to community and teamwork. This articulation is consistent with the values and brand identity of the Budapest Police Department as a professional and dedicated law enforcement agency.

4.3.6. Entry 6: Announcement of funeral date at 11:44 a.m. on 17 January.
Post text:
„Dear followers, including many of our colleagues! We would like to inform you that our heroic dead, posthumous police lieutenant Péter Baumann will be buried with military honours on 26 January 2023 at 13:00 in the Mátészalkai Cemetery.
It is the express wish of the mourning family that their child be laid to rest in a private circle, among family, friends and the extended family of police officers, without media attention. The funeral is not open to the press, so we ask the media to respect the request of the bereaved family. We know that Peter’s death has touched many people, many have expressed their condolences and sympathy, and we would like to share our grief and follow the final resting place of our hero. The BRFK communications team will take photos and video of the funeral, which will be shared with the public after the funeral and made available to the media. Thank you for your understanding.”

Funeral notice.

Analysis:
From a crisis communications perspective, this post focuses on providing the public with important information about the funeral of Peter Baumann, a posthumous police lieutenant. The post effectively conveys the date, time and location of the funeral, as well as the family’s expressed wish that the service be private and free from media attention.
By clearly explaining these details, the post helps manage expectations and prevents misunderstandings or inappropriate media or public behaviour.
The post will also assure the public that the communications team will take photographs and videos of the funeral, which will be shared with the public after the ceremony and made available to the media. This demonstrates a commitment to transparency and public information while respecting the wishes of the family.
In terms of framing, the post frames the crisis as a deeply personal and emotional event for Peter Baumann’s family and the police community. By emphasizing the family’s request for privacy and respecting their request, the police frame the crisis situation in a way that foregrounds compassion and respect for the grieving family.
Overall, this post effectively conveys important information while demonstrating sensitivity and empathy for the grieving family and the public.

4.3.7. Press conference by Kristóf Gál, spokesperson of the ORFK, live video log-in
Transcript:
„Good afternoon Ladies and Gentlemen. Thank you for accepting our invitation.
The command investigation into the police action on the night of 12 January and the use of firearms by the police has been completed. The investigation has established that both the use of firearms and the use of other means of coercion by my colleagues were lawful, professional and proportionate.
The investigation also found that my staff had received advanced professional training and preparation. And they used all the means of restraint applicable to police personnel in the police force during the operation. The number of officers dispatched was in line with the information from the report, and at the time the police were not aware of any other information that would justify the dispatch of more force or other means of coercion.
These command investigations are conducted by or reviewed by persons responsible for such findings. These officers are aware that their findings must also be able to pass the scales of justice, so they do not just make decisions on the basis of their professional and moral convictions.
The conclusion they have reached is based on full knowledge of the facts, taking into account all the other circumstances, and it is in this sense that they have reached this decision.
That is why it is deeply depressing to read statements on various platforms which, whether anonymously or by name, make assumptions based on all kinds of information from thin air or on completely unfounded press reports, cloaked in the appearance of professionalism.

In fact, not only in this case, but also in other similar police actions, we are not going to react – I cannot put it any other way – to the dilettante statements that have been made and will not be made.
If the professional experience that the police can draw from the current action, if there is a reasonable justification for it in the future, is taken into account, we will take it into account in the future procedural arrangements.
On behalf of the police, I would like to ask the public to appreciate the sacrificial work that my colleagues, especially my patrol officers working in the field of public order, do every day in the interests of the safety of the people living here, in Hungary, even in the light of such regrettable incidents.
We continue to mourn deeply the death of our colleague, Lieutenant Péter Baumann. And here I would like to thank those partner organisations and individuals who have expressed their sympathy to the police in recent days.
I now turn to you, journalists and media content providers: the date of the funeral of our deceased colleague has already been published in the media. I would like to convey the family’s request that the funeral, I would ask that the media not be involved in any way. I ask that this request of the bereaved family be respected.”
Video, press conference in the ORFK lobby.

Analysis:
From a crisis communication perspective, this press conference is an important moment in the crisis management of the Budapest Police. The press conference is taking place five days after the tragic death of a police officer and two days after a video of two police chiefs visiting their injured colleague was posted on Facebook. The press conference aims to provide information on the investigation into the police action that led to the officer’s death and to address public concerns about police violence.
The press conference will begin with the speaker thanking the audience for accepting the invitation, acknowledging the seriousness of the situation and the importance of transparency in communication. The use of live streaming, where the speaker addresses the audience directly, adds credibility to the message and builds trust with the public.
Kristóf Gál then turns to the findings of the command investigation into the police action on the night of the incident. He stresses that the use of firearms and other means of coercion by the police was lawful, professional and proportionate, and that the officers received a high level of professional training and coaching. This statement is essential to allay concerns about police brutality and to reassure the public that the police acted appropriately.
Kristóf Gál also addresses the criticisms and accusations made against the police, stating that the investigation was conducted in full knowledge of the facts and that the officers responsible for the findings had to make their decisions on the basis of their professional and moral convictions. He criticises the „amateurish statements” made by individuals and the media, stressing that they have no basis in reality.
Another important element of the press conference was the call to the public to appreciate the work of the police and to recognise the sacrifices of their colleagues in the public order. The statement aims to restore public confidence in the police and emphasises that the police work for the safety of the community.
The theory of crisis communication framing is present. The spokesperson presents the investigative report as thorough, professional and fair to influence the public’s perception of the police’s handling of the situation. The spokesperson also stresses that despite such unfortunate events, police officers carry out their daily work with professionalism and dedication. Furthermore, he expresses his request to the bereaved family for a funeral as a sincere and respectful appeal that the media should respect. This wording is consistent with the crisis communication objective of projecting a positive and responsible image of the organisation to the public.
Finally, Kristóf Gál speaks about the funeral of the deceased colleague and asks that the media should not be present at it in any way. This statement expresses respect for the bereaved family and is intended to prevent unnecessary disturbance at this difficult time.
Overall, this press conference is an effective crisis communication response by the Budapest police. It provides clear and concise information on the incident, addresses public concerns and underlines the professionalism and commitment of the police. The speaker’s tone is measured and empathetic, which helps to build trust and confidence in the police’s crisis response capabilities. Appealing to the public and asking the bereaved family for privacy shows the human face of the organisation and enhances its reputation.
The contents of the press conference have been published in writing by the police, reinforcing its messages.

4.3.8 Entry 8: Departure for the funeral at 09:04 on 26 January.
Post text:
„We set off to say our final farewell to posthumous police lieutenant Peter Baumann. Our colleagues, from all districts of the capital, are on their way to say goodbye and to pay tribute to our heroic policeman. The funeral will be attended by all Budapest police officers whose duties allowed. We stand together, we stand together! „
Photo: video of the police officers boarding the buses.

Analysis:
The post includes a video of police officers boarding buses to attend the funeral, creating a sense of unity and solidarity within the police force. The text also stresses the importance of paying tribute to Peter Baumann and highlights the participation of all Budapest police officers whose duty allowed them to attend the funeral.
For the SCCT, this post is intended to provide stakeholders with important information on the police response to the crisis and the steps taken to honour the memory of Peter Baumann. It also helps to reinforce the message that the police is a community-oriented organisation with a strong emphasis on teamwork and solidarity.
In terms of framing, the post frames the crisis as a deeply personal and emotional event for the police and the family of Peter Baumann. By emphasising the unity and solidarity of police officers in paying tribute together to the memory of their deceased colleague, the post reinforces the message that the police are putting compassion and respect for those affected by the crisis at the forefront. This framing is consistent with the values and brand identity of the Budapest Police as a professional and caring law enforcement agency.
Overall, this post is an example of how crisis communication strategy can be used to convey a message of unity and strength in the face of tragedy. It is important for organisations to show compassion and empathy in times of crisis, while demonstrating their ability to deal with the situation professionally and effectively.

4.3.9 Ninth entry: farewell speech by Major General Dr. Tamás Terdik, video. Published on 26 January at 17:37.
Post text (summary):
The eulogy at the funeral of posthumous police lieutenant-general Péter Baumann. The police chief begins by expressing his condolences to Peter’s family, colleagues and loved ones. He highlights Peter’s dedication to serving his country as a police officer and his commitment to learning and excellence in his profession.
The Chief of Police describes Peter’s background, including his education and his early years as a patrol officer. Peter’s hard work and positive attitude quickly earned him the respect and appreciation of his colleagues and superiors. He was also known for his friendly personality and outgoing personality, which helped him to develop excellent relationships with his colleagues and he made many friends at the Law Enforcement College and at work.
The Chief of Police emphasises Peter’s commitment to his duties as a patrol officer and commander, which was characterised by diligence, precision, determination, professionalism and humanity. He was courteous and respectful to his colleagues and superiors. The Commissioner commends Peter for his dedication to his profession and notes that, on the recommendation of his commanders, he was appointed District Commissioner with effect from July 2021.
The Commissioner then turns to the events of 13 January 2023, when Peter was one of the first on the scene on the tragic night of the operation and defended his colleagues during the operation, but to no avail. Despite Peter’s firm, legal and professional action, the tragedy was not prevented. The Chief of Police commends the heroic actions of Péter, as well as those of Staff Sergeant László Dobos and Staff Sergeant László Kállay, who were injured in the accident.
The Minister of the Interior declared Péter a heroic death and posthumously promoted him to the rank of Lieutenant-General of Police. The Chief of Police praised Peter’s character, his creed and his adherence to his oath as a police officer. He quotes a colleague as saying that if you could ask Peter now if what he did was right, the answer would be that he would do it again any time if it meant protecting others.
In closing, the Police Commissioner pledges that on behalf of the Ministry of Interior, the National Police Headquarters, the Budapest Police Headquarters and the entire leadership and staff of the police, he will always pay tribute to the memory of Peter. He bids farewell to Peter with the words „Farewell, Lieutenant”.

Picture: video of the eulogy at the funeral.

Analysis:
The Chief of Police’s speech at the funeral of Police Lieutenant Peter Baumann is an example of effective crisis communication. The speech strikes an emotional note and conveys the gravity of the situation, emphasising the sacrifice made by the officer in the line of duty. It is clear from the speech that the police deeply value their members and their contribution to society.
The Chief of Police speaks at length about the life and achievements of Peter Baumann, highlighting his commitment to his profession and his excellent relationship with his colleagues. In doing so, he not only pays tribute to the memory of the fallen policeman, but also demonstrates the values and qualities that the police expect from its members.
The speech also recognises the courage of Peter Baumann and his colleagues in the operation that led to his death, portraying them as heroes who risked their lives to protect others. In terms of Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), the eulogy can be seen as an attempt to demonstrate the police’s commitment to transparency, honesty and accountability in their communication with stakeholders. The Chief of Police also acknowledges the tragedy and pays tribute to the heroic actions of Peter and his injured colleagues, showing empathy and compassion for the bereaved family and colleagues of the deceased officer.
The Police Commissioner’s speech concludes on a sombre note, pledging that the memory of Peter Baumann will be honoured and reiterating the police’s commitment to serving the country. The speech is a good example of how to handle a crisis situation, demonstrating the professionalism, dedication and commitment of the police to its members and the community.

4.3.10. Tenth entry: video of the funeral. Published on 26 January at 18:42.
Post text:
„Today, time stands still for us, and our souls are stuck somewhere in the past; there, at a time when Peter Baumann, posthumous police lieutenant, was still with us. Today we had to say goodbye to him, a young policeman, a hero, a friend. Because during his life, Peter found not only partners, but friends, a second family among us.
His path led him consistently to his beloved profession; he served and protected, true to his oath, until the end of his life!
Our deceased colleague was accompanied by his family, friends, comrades and acquaintances on his final journey in the Mátészalka Cemetery, with military honours.
At the funeral, Dr. Sándor Pintér, Minister of the Interior, Dr. Zoltán Bolcsik, State Secretary of Law Enforcement, Dr. János Balogh, Lieutenant General, National Police Chief and his deputies, the county police chiefs and the heads of the partner organisations expressed their condolences and paid their respects to the posthumous police lieutenant.
The farewell speech was delivered by Major General Tamás Terdik, Chief of Police of Budapest. In his speech, he recalled the words of Péter Baumann’s close friends and comrades. We can proudly say and be proud of the fact that we were able to call this MAN our friend.
The world is a much emptier place without him, but we have infinite faith that he is our patron saint since January 13.
Petey was a smile album, on one hand all his acquaintances can count the times he didn’t have a smile on his face.
His family is one of the first to highlight this quality, he was happy at home too.
She was happy because her work was her life, it made her complete. He could not and would not have wanted any other vocation for himself, he was a policeman with a capital ‘P’.”
Finally, Dr Tamás Terdik said goodbye to his beloved colleague with these words:
A line from the Police Oath reads:
„I will do my duty, if necessary, at the risk of my life.”
Peter did just that. His character, his creed, is perhaps best expressed by the following reflection from a colleague:
If we could ask him now if what he did was right, his answer would be that he would do it again any time if it meant protecting others.
Dear Parents and Relatives. Let us not forget that Peter lived among us and, true to his oath, served his country as a hero. We promise to honour his memory at all times.
On behalf of the Ministry of Interior, the National Police Headquarters, the Budapest Police Headquarters, the entire leadership and staff of the Police, we bid him farewell with a sad heart.
Rest in peace Peter, God be with you, Lieutenant General!
BAUMANN PÉTER! WE, THE POLICE OF BUDAPEST, WILL NEVER FORGET YOU!!!
WE LOVE YOU FOREVER! 🖤💙”
Photo material: video of the funeral.

Analysis:
The police once again highlight the dedication and sacrifice of Peter Baumann, who lived and died in the service and protection of his community, as well as his professional attitude and positive outlook on life. The funeral was attended by family members, friends and colleagues who paid their respects to Peter Baumann, who was honoured with a military citation. The post also includes a farewell speech by Major General Tamás Terdik, Chief of Police of Budapest, in which he praised Péter Baumann’s character and commitment to his profession. The author concludes by saying that the Budapest police will never forget Péter Baumann and promises to honour his memory at all times. From a crisis communication perspective, the post is a touching tribute to a fallen hero, showing the police’s gratitude and appreciation for the service and sacrifice of Péter Baumann and contributing to the positive image of the police in the eyes of the public.
The post on the funeral of Peter Baumann is in line with the principles of the SCCT as it expresses sympathy and support for the family, friends and colleagues of the deceased officer. The post also portrays Peter as a hero, highlighting his commitment to serving and protecting his country as a police officer. The military tribute paid to Peter at the funeral also reflects the police’s desire to show their respect and appreciation for Peter’s service.

4.3.11. Eleventh post: pictures from the funeral, published on 28 January at 08:00.
Post text:
„Péter Baumann Posthumous Police Lieutenant 1993 – 2023 „
Picture material: pictures from the funeral.

Analysis.

4.3.12. Twelfth entry: Commemoration of the heroic dead on his birthday, published on 3 February at 11:05 am.

Post text:
„Happy birthday Peter, now up there in the police arm of heaven! Only a few days ago we said goodbye to you, and only a few days ago we promised you that we Budapest police officers would cherish your memory forever, and already a day has dawned that should be yours. Your birthday. Our hero who died young, posthumous police lieutenant Peter Baumann would have been 30 years old today.
„Life is defeated by death, but memory wins its battle against nothingness.” Tzvetan Todorov”

Photo.

Analysis:
In terms of crisis communication, it is appropriate to commemorate significant events such as a person’s birthday, even if he or she has already passed away. This shows that the police appreciate the life and contribution of the deceased colleague.
The post also includes a quote reflecting the importance of remembrance and remembrance. This admonition may be comforting to those who are grieving or affected by loss, as it emphasises that Peter’s legacy lives on through the memories and actions of those who knew him.
Overall, this post illustrates the SCCT principle of empathy for those involved and conveying a sense of loss and grief to the audience. In this way, the Budapest Police is able to maintain a positive relationship with the community and reinforce its commitment to honouring the memory of Peter Baumann.

5. Conclusion, suggestions, limitations
   5.1.
   Finally, in this chapter I draw conclusions, including a summary of the research findings, identification of limitations, and recommendations for future research.
   Based on the analysis of the Budapest Police Headquarters’ posts and communications related to the police murder in Újbuda, it can be concluded that the organisation has successfully addressed the challenges posed by the emergence of social media in crisis communications. The police used different strategies to effectively protect the reputation of the organisation in crisis situations.
   Firstly, the Budapest Police has demonstrated its commitment to structured processes for crisis communication, as evidenced by the use of command investigations and press conferences to provide timely and accurate information to the public. This ensures that the organisation is perceived as transparent and accountable, which helps build public trust.
   Secondly, the police have made a concerted effort to provide updates as soon as possible during crisis situations and use social media platforms to reach a wider audience. This helps to inform and engage the public and to quell rumours and misinformation that spreads quickly on social media.
   Third, the Budapest Police Headquarters has consistently analysed and learned from previous crisis situations and used this knowledge to improve its crisis communication strategies. This demonstrates a willingness to adapt and evolve, and a recognition of the importance of effective crisis communication in maintaining the reputation of the organisation.

Furthermore, the use of Coombs’ SCCT and framing theory in the communication of the Budapest Police is evident. The Police Department has used these theories to effectively frame its crisis communications in a way that emphasizes its commitment to public safety and accountability while also highlighting the heroic actions of its officers.
The BRFK demonstrates a strong commitment to effective crisis communications in the age of social media. Through the use of structured processes, timely updates, and adapting strategies based on previous crises, the police department has successfully protected its organizational reputation. In addition, the use of Coombs’ SCCT and framing theory has enabled the police department to effectively frame its communications and reinforce its commitment to public safety and accountability.
The use of communication framing theory in the crisis communication strategies employed by the BRFK was evident because the police used language and terminology to frame the situation that was consistent with their values and goals. For example, emphasising the professionalism, training and commitment of the police officers helped to reframe the narrative around the tragic event, highlighting the bravery and commitment of the police, rather than focusing solely on the negative aspects of the incident. This framing helped to mitigate the negative publicity and reputational damage that the police faced.
In conclusion, the Budapest police successfully addressed the crisis communication challenges posed by the emergence of social media. By using SCCT and FT, the police were able to strategically manage communications in crisis situations and protect the reputation of their organisation and their colleagues. The police have demonstrated structured processes, transparency and timely updates while analyzing and learning from past scenarios.
Based on the above, I consider both of my research questions to be justified:

1. Did the Budapest Police Headquarters successfully deal with the crisis communication challenges posed by the emergence of social media during the police murder in Újbuda? – I ACCEPT.
2. Did the Budapest Police Headquarters effectively protect its own organisational reputation in a crisis situation on social media by using different crisis communication strategies during the police murder in Újbuda? – I AGREE.
   5.2. Recommendations
   Based on my research, I have formulated ten suggestions on which, with a stronger focus, the police could communicate more effectively in crisis situations – both on social media and through other channels:
3. Prioritise timely and accurate communication: in the age of social media, news travels fast and it is important that the police respond quickly to any crisis situation. This means setting up a system that provides updates as soon as possible to avoid rumours and speculation. This can be done through social media, press releases or other channels.
   2 Be transparent and honest: People value honesty and it is important to be open and transparent about the situation. Avoid hiding information or twisting the story, as this can lead to mistrust and further damage to your organisation’s reputation.
4. Show empathy and understanding. Police should show empathy and understanding for those affected. This can be done through public statements, actions or simply by taking the time to listen to those affected.
5. Analyse past crises and learn from them. After every crisis, it is important to analyse what worked and what didn’t and use this information to improve communication and response strategies for future crises.
6. Ensure resources are in place for effective communication: Police should ensure that they have the resources and systems in place to communicate effectively in a crisis. This may include training staff, setting up crisis communications teams or investing in communications technology.
   6 Have a plan in place: police forces should have a crisis communication plan in place that defines roles, responsibilities and communication channels in the event of a crisis. This will help ensure that everyone knows what to do and can act quickly and effectively.
7. Keep the public informed: It is important to keep the public informed of the progress of the crisis and the actions taken. Regular updates can help allay fears and concerns and show that the police are taking the situation seriously.
   8.
8. Ensure that communication is consistent across all channels. This will help avoid misunderstandings and ensure that everyone gets the same information.
9. Take into account the potential impact of communication on different target groups. This can help ensure that communications are appropriate and effective for each target audience.

5.3 Limitations of the research
Research on the crisis communication strategies used by the Budapest police during major incidents is hampered by several potential obstacles. One of the main challenges is the sensitive and often confidential nature of police operations, especially in crisis situations. Access to relevant data and information may therefore be difficult or even impossible, as police forces may be reluctant to share sensitive information with external researchers or the public.
Another barrier to conducting research on police crisis communications is the potential bias or selective reporting of media coverage of police incidents. Media products may focus on certain aspects of the crisis situation, such as the police response or public reaction, while ignoring other important factors, such as police communications or broader systemic issues. This can make it difficult for researchers to get a complete and accurate picture of police crisis communication strategies.
Furthermore, the rapidity of social media and online communication can also challenge research efforts. In a crisis, information can spread quickly through social media channels, and police must respond quickly to dispel rumors or provide accurate information to the public. However, this also means that researchers must be able to collect and analyse data in near real time to understand the effectiveness of police crisis communication strategies.
Finally, a major barrier to conducting research on police crisis communication is the need for trust and cooperation between researchers and police agencies. Building relationships and trust with police agencies can take time and effort, especially after a crisis or serious incident. Without the cooperation and support of police agencies, researchers may have difficulty accessing relevant data and information, making it difficult to conduct meaningful research on police crisis communications.

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Annexes
Annex 1: In-depth interview with Lieutenant Colonel Kristóf Gál, spokesman of the National Police Headquarters
2023.02.07.
(This text is a short transcript of a longer interview, only the most relevant and useful information is included.)
Tamás Hackl: Could you give some examples of the most serious crisis communication incidents that the police have had to face in recent years?
Gál Kristóf.
Tamás Hackl: Could you describe the procedure the police follow when planning and implementing crisis communication?
Kristóf Gál: Our crisis communication strategy is based on the command and control system within the organisation. The reason for this is that our organisation operates as a command and control system. Because of the unpredictability of crises, we mostly use reactive communication. We often have little information due to the multi-factorial nature of some crises, such as the Mermaid disaster. To ensure effective crisis communication, we have developed clear protocols and procedures for communicating within the organisation and with external stakeholders, such as the media and the public. These protocols ensure that information is disseminated in a timely, accurate and consistent manner.
In addition, we have defined specific roles and responsibilities for our crisis communication team, which also reports directly to senior management. The team will be responsible for coordinating communication activities during crisis situations, including liaising with relevant stakeholders, developing key messages and managing media enquiries.
To develop our crisis communication skills, we regularly organise training and simulations for our staff, including our crisis communication colleagues. These activities aim to prepare our staff to deal with different types of crises and communication challenges.
We also place great emphasis on building and maintaining relationships with the media and other external stakeholders. This includes regular contact with journalists and media, as well as proactive communication to inform the public about our activities and initiatives.
Overall, our crisis communication strategy is based on the principles of transparency, accountability and timely and accurate information.
Tamás Hackl: In your experience, how effective is the use of social media platforms to prevent reputational damage in a crisis compared to traditional media?
Kristóf Gál: The immediacy of social media can be a major advantage in a crisis situation, as it allows us to address society and the public directly, bypassing traditional media. It allows us to exclude any possible bias or, in urgent cases, unnecessary information or suggestions. However, there are also drawbacks, such as the lack of intermediaries, and the risks of engaging with social media in a crisis situation need to be carefully considered.
Tamás Hackl: Can you give an example of a crisis situation where the communication strategy was based on transparency and honesty? How effective was it in preventing damage to the reputation of the police?
Kristóf Gál: Our basic strategy is to tell the truth, although there are often limits to what we can effectively disclose: if we accidentally disclose too much information about a case, it could seriously jeopardise, for example, the course of the investigation or the safety of our officers or the public. As a counter-example to this, it is important to mention that in the case of the murder of a policeman in Újbuda, we considered that we had sufficient information to assess the situation and we were able to communicate this effectively to the public: we said that the situation had been well assessed by the operations manager and that our officers had acted in a prepared manner, following the appropriate protocols. We then gave the floor to the prosecution, who also confirmed what we had said.
Tamás Hackl: Can you share a case where the police’s crisis communication strategy was based on empathy and caring for those affected, and how this affected the reputation of the police during and after the crisis?
Kristóf Gál: In the case of the Fehérvári út police murder, the whole police force showed empathy and care for the victim; in the case of the Teréz körút bombing, for the injured. This was credible and also helped to protect our reputation. However, it is important to note that the impact of empathy depends on the subject of the crisis.
Tamás Hackl. Are there cases where relying on lower-level staff or external PR firms has been less effective?
Kristóf Gál: The involvement of senior management is extremely important for credibility. It is important to speak up and stand up for what is right. In some cases, relying on lower-level staff or external PR firms is less effective, such as during the protests at the US Capitol, so we try to avoid that.
Tamás Hackl: How do police measure the success of crisis communication strategies in terms of reputation management?
Kristóf Gál: Communication is usually done in a planned way, and we also use internal evaluation to measure the success of crisis communication strategies. In crises we try to be as transparent as possible; for example, we recently confirmed journalists’ confidence in the police during a background interview, which was an important step in protecting our reputation. Honesty is always important, so we use a dialogue approach with journalists, for example.
Tamás Hackl: What are the common mistakes made in crisis communication and how can the police avoid them?
Kristóf Gál: Credibility is key, so it is important to be well informed and only give information that can be verified and that stands up in hindsight. It is important not to rush to provide information without checking it thoroughly first, even if there is an expectation of speed and timeliness in a crisis situation. We will also ensure that our messages are well thought out and formulated in consultation with other relevant organisations to avoid contradictions.
Tamás Hackl: How does the police ensure that crisis communication messages are consistent across all channels, including social media and traditional media?
Kristóf Gál: We assign a different person or team to be responsible for each channel – they work closely together to ensure consistency of messages. We create channel-specific content versions for the different platforms, such as police.hu and Facebook, which are agreed by the team responsible for each channel with everyone else.
Tamás Hackl: In your experience, what are the most effective ways for the police to maintain trust and restore reputation after a crisis?
Kristóf Gál: In our experience, the most effective way to maintain trust and reputation after a crisis is to take responsibility for mistakes made, to apologise sincerely and to show what steps we are taking to ensure that similar situations do not occur in the future. For example, after an incident in 2013, when two police officers beat a Roma man in Izsak, we stood by the head of the prosecutor’s office and distanced ourselves from the actions of the police officers, which helped to restore public trust. The then police chief, Károly Papp, said that „the abuse of the prisoner in Issaq was unacceptable and intolerable”. It is important to take time to reflect on what went wrong and make meaningful changes to prevent future crises.

Annex 2: In-depth interview with Major Ingrid Nothoff, Communications Specialist, Budapest Police Headquarters
(This text is a short transcript of a longer interview, only the most relevant and useful information is included.)

2023. 03.20.
      Tamás Hackl.
      Ingrid Nothoff. I oversee the tasks of the Communications Department. One of the primary objectives is to present the achievements of the Budapest Police Headquarters in a factual manner and to promote the police profession to the public.
      Tamás Hackl: How do you ensure that citizens have access to the most authentic information about the work of the police as quickly as possible?
      Ingrid Nothoff: We use several methods to ensure that citizens receive the most authentic information about the work of the police as quickly as possible. One of the best examples is the BRFK information portal on Facebook, which has grown beyond its social nature in the last two years and is very often used by journalists and the media as a primary source of information. We also work closely with the Crime and Accident Prevention Unit and have a number of joint projects to ensure that citizens receive accurate and timely information.
      Tamás Hackl: Could you talk about the main areas of police communication?
      Ingrid Nothoff: The main areas of police communication include information targeting, cultivating and developing the reputation and image of the police, cultivating and developing relations with the press, continuous communication training for managers, editing and publishing information and image-building campaigns, and analysis and research.
      Tamás Hackl: How do you respond to requests from the press and what are the most important aspects you take into account?
      Ingrid Nothoff: We respond to all press enquiries as soon as possible. It is important that misinformation or misinformation resulting from leaks is not spread. We will ensure that a spokesperson appropriate to the characteristics of the press organ is available on request. In press communications, only agreed and approved information will be provided and colleagues designated to make a statement will be prepared by the Communications Department. It is essential to comply with the law, to focus only on the facts and to avoid expressing an independent opinion other than that of the police.
      Tamás Hackl: Could you tell us about the structure of the Communications Department of the Budapest Police Headquarters?
      Ingrid Nothoff: The Communications Department is made up of a head of department, deputy head of department, spokesperson, press officers, secretary and technicians. The Head of Unit is responsible for, among other things, handling the files and enquiries that come into the unit, regularly monitoring and reporting on the activities of staff, ensuring a proportionate distribution of workload, training and development of staff, and preparing annual and periodic reports. The Spokesperson liaises with media content providers, responds to enquiries from the press, organises and conducts press conferences and events open to the press, and closely monitors communications between the Ministry of Interior and other police forces.
      Tamás Hackl: Can you tell us how crisis communication is handled?
      Ingrid Nothoff: We place great emphasis on the continuous improvement of our crisis communication practices. Our strategy should be based on a hierarchical system within the organisation. We have designated spokespersons in case of crisis. These spokespersons receive regular training to ensure that they are well prepared to deal with any crisis that may arise.
      Tamás Hackl: How do you prepare for a crisis?
      Ingrid Nothoff: Preparation is key in crisis communication. We have developed a comprehensive crisis communication plan that includes different scenarios that you may face. We hold regular exercises with our staff to ensure that they are well prepared to deal with any crisis that may arise. I will briefly outline our crisis communication plan:
      The main objective of crisis communication is to ensure that the image of the organisation is not compromised, and therefore the primary task is to provide the public with accurate, rapid, reliable and professional information, and to this end we are developing a crisis communication strategy, the main tool of which is the effective functioning of the Communication Department. Crisis management cannot work effectively without crisis communication, which is based on the creation of a crisis team within the department to encourage the target audience to take the expected action.
      The staff required to set up a crisis team:

• team leader (head of department, deputy head of department)
• legal adviser
• colleague who speaks a foreign language (English, German, French)
• interpreter if necessary
• communicators (spokesperson, press officer)
  Use of crisis communication
• always anticipate the worst-case scenario, thus taking into account all possible problems and obstacles so that nothing can catch the organisation unawares
  Objectives
• to issue the primary communication as quickly as possible, thus preventing the release of false, panic-inducing information (this is particularly important in today’s fast-paced communication environment with the advent of social media
• keeping the press informed, even every half hour, every hour

It is worth identifying the types of crisis and formulating key messages for them:

• Identify the target groups for communication: internal communication: staff, managers; external communication: public, press; professional communication: supervisory bodies, authorities
• Use of appropriate tools: external communication: press release, press call, press conference, interview, website; internal communication: intranet, letter, e-mail, internal newsletter
• Establish a communication team: quick, proactive decision-makers, expertise, knowledge of the organisation, objectives

The target audience varies depending on whether we are talking about an internal or external crisis. Internal communication is aimed at the staff of the organisation, external communication at the press and citizens, and finally professional communication at the supervisory bodies and authorities. In the case of the Budapest Police Headquarters, the Communication Department is responsible for communication in these types of crisis.
Action:

• Press release: press officer / press office 1. report, request background information, 2. draft press release 3. choice of headline, lead, headline 4. after consultation with spokesperson, head of department, ORFK Communications Service, Ministry of Interior, upload to website 5. executive news service (round sms) 6. distribution to TV, radio 7. receives press enquiries 8. signals to spokesperson if there is a request for an interview
• Press call: press officer, 1. draft press call preparation/agreement, 2. draft press call approval, 3. press call upload to website
• Press conference: according to the usual methodology (booking of the room, briefing of journalists, preparation of the spokesperson, issuing of the press release)

Requires on-the-spot communication: yes
Reporting obligation to the Head of Unit: yes
Further communication, follow-up proposed: yes
Process:

• Event detection
• Coordination with Budapest Police Chief
• Establishment of a crisis team
• Requesting and collecting reports, information
• after consultation with the chief, set up a communication strategy
• Various consultations (with the Chief of Police, ORFK Communication Service, Ministry of Interior)
• writing of communication (continuous updating of communication)
• responding to interview requests.
  Annex 3: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023). Facebook.

Annex 4: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023). Facebook.

5. Annex: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023). Facebook.

Annex 6: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Visit of colleagues injured in Újbuda.

Annex 7: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Thanks to partner organisations

Annex 8: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Announcement of the date of the funeral.

9. Annex: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Press conference by Kristóf Gál, spokesman of the ORFK. Facebook.

Attachment 10: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023). Facebook.

11. Facebook.

Annex 12: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Video of the funeral. Facebook.

Annex 13: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Photos of the funeral. Facebook.

Annex 14: BRFK | Budapest Police Headquarters (2023): Birthday commemoration. Facebook.